Archives: Articles

The Flash Drought of 1936

Authors: Eric D. Hunt, Jordan I. Christian, Jeffrey B. Basara, Lauren Lowman, Jason A. Otkin, Jesse Bell, Karla Jarecke, Ryann A. Wakefield, Robb M. Randall
Volume: Volume 2020, No. 4
DOI: http://www.doi.org/10.46275/JOASC.2020.11.001
Abstract: An exceptional flash drought during the spring and summer of 1936 led to extreme heat waves, large losses of human life and significant reductions of crop production. An analysis of historic precipitation and temperature records shows that the flash drought originated over the southeastern United States (U.S.) in April 1936. The flash drought then spread north and westward through the early summer of 1936 and possibly merged with a flash drought that had developed in the spring over the northern Plains. The timing of the flash drought was particularly ill-timed as most locations were at or entering their climatological peak for precipitation at the onset of flash drought, thus maximizing the deficits of precipitation. Thus, by early July most locations in the central and eastern U.S. were either in drought or rapidly cascading toward drought. The weeks that followed the 1st of July were some of the hottest on record in the U.S., with two major heat waves: first over the Midwest and eastern U.S. in the first half of July and then across the south-central U.S in the month of August. The combination of the flash drought and heat wave led to an agricultural disaster in the north central U.S. and one of the deadliest events in U.S. history.
Link: https://stateclimate.org/pdfs/journal-articles/2020_4-Hunt.pdf

Tie-Breaking Methodology for the Assessment of Science Olympiad Events

Authors: F. Adnan Akyuz, Guy Hokanson, Tanya Lynn Akyuz
Volume: Volume 2020, No. 1, 9 Jan 2020
DOI: http://www.doi.org/10.46275/JOASC.2020.01.001
Abstract: Science Olympiad events are annually conducted competitions that cover a variety of science disciplines spanning biology, earth science, chemistry, physics, engineering, and technology. Each event addresses the knowledge of science concepts, as well as the application of these concepts, along with the necessary process skills to participate in the National Science Olympiad Tournament at the end of May of each year. In 2019, the meteorology event was conducted in Division B (Middle Schools). Fifty questions were prepared before the events in the North Dakota state competition to cover topics ranging from the Earth’s modern atmosphere to weather forecasting and temperature indices. The North Dakota Meteorology event facilitators used the Turning Technologies’ student response system to automate the scoring to minimize manual grading error and to eliminate any ties in score consistently for all competitors. Breaking multiple ties by manual grading is a difficult task considering that the scores need to be turned in as soon as the tests end. Additionally, the Olympic rules do not allow any ties and ask the event facilitators to turn in the score sheets with each team awarded unique scores. In other words, the facilitators are expected to come up with their own way to resolve the ties, leading to inconsistencies in methodologies among the events. This paper focuses on breaking ties based on the difficulty level of a question in such a way that the more difficult the question is, the more points are awarded for the team in an automated fashion. The authors believe that the method described here is a simple but useful method that will save the facilitators time and provide an error-free, and most importantly a consistent grading system that is designed to eliminate the tie of scores among the competing teams. Furthermore, the tie-breaking methodology described in this paper and the publicly available score sheet, which could be adapted for use even if one does not have Turning Points technology, have the potential to lead to more consistent scoring in any of the Science Olympiad events across the country.
Link: https://stateclimate.org/pdfs/journal-articles/2020_1-Akyuz.pdf

THE PAST AND FUTURE OF CLIMATE-RELATED SERVICES IN THE UNITED STATES

Authors: Stanley A. Changnon
Volume: Volume 2007, No. 1, 1 Jun 2007
DOI: http://www.doi.org/10.46275/JoASC.2007.06.001
Abstract: Climate information has been the foundation upon which the nation’s weather-sensitive activities and infrastructure have been developed over the past 200 years. By 1970, climate services had begun to move to a new level of recognition and ever higher value to the climate-sensitive sectors of the nation. The past four decades have seen a series of scientific advances and technological changes that have vastly enhanced the provision of climate information. Atmospheric scientists created major improvements in weather-sensing instruments, in data quality and its archival, in the ease of accessing data and climate information, and in the generation of user-friendly climate products. Coupled with these advances have been national and global economic conditions and government policies that have acted to greatly increase the demand for climate products. On the government side, there has been establishment of state climatologists in all states, a national network of six regional climate cen ters, and an enhanced national data center. On the business side, there has been a rapid expansion into climatology, bringing new climate-based products and services to a vast array of climate-sensitive businesses and government agencies. However, not all aspects of climate services are at an optimum level. Five limitations need future attention to achieve optimum usage of climate information: better climate training; stabilization of weather/climate measurements; enhanced outreach to users; better information on climate impacts; and knowledge of effects of climate change. Regardless, provision of climate data and information is the oldest atmospheric sciences activity in service to society and its most successful.
Link: https://stateclimate.org/pdfs/journal-articles/2007_1-Changnon.pdf

AGRICULTURAL CLIMATOLOGY

Authors: Kenneth G. Hubbard
Volume: Volume 2007, No. 2, 2 Jun 2007
DOI: http://www.doi.org/10.46274/JoASC.2007.06.002
Abstract: Agricultural Climatology can play a role in decisions related to “What Crop Should I Plant?”, “When Should I Plant?”, “What Hybrid Should I Plant?”, “What is Happening with Crops in other Parts of the World?”, and “Where Should the Feedlot be Located?”. There are a host of other questions that Agricultural Climatology can help to answer including: “What Seeding Density Should I Choose?”, “What is the Optimal Fertilizer Treatment?”, “How do I Choose Effective Pest Treatment?”, “When should I conduct aerial spraying?”, “Is Irrigation an Effective Option?”, “Can I Grow a Second Crop?”, “Will an On-the- Farm Wind Energy Plant be Cost Effective?”, “Where is the Optimal Location of a new Ethanol Plant?”, “Is the Duration of the Growing Season Changing?”, and “Is the Likelihood of Heat Stress Changing?”. For Agricultural Climatology to reach its potential with respect to these and other decisions federal investments and commitments are needed. First and foremost the federal government must commit to supporting data gathering networks. Secondly, the federal institutions must support the infrastructure necessary to archive and disseminate the basic data. Quality Control/Assurance must be standardized between agencies and institutions and any changes to existing data sets should be synchronized so that all parties have the “best” available data. A suite of standardized products should be supported so that the data can be provided to potential users in the agricultural sector in formats that are readily used.
Link: https://stateclimate.org/pdfs/journal-articles/2007_2-Hubbard.pdf

NOAA CLIMATE DATA STEWARDSHIP: PROGRESS THROUGH PARTNERSHIPS

Authors: Robert J. Leffler, Michael J. Brewer, Robert E. Livezey, Robert W. Reeves, Myron Berger, Timothy W. Owen, Karsten Shein
Volume: Volume 2007, No. 3, 2 Jun 2007
DOI: http://www.doi.org/10.46274/JoASC.2007.06.003
Abstract: Recent changes in the organizational structure of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) have created an environment conducive to improved end-to-end agency climate data stewardship. Changes include the reintroduction of a climate services program into the National Weather Service (NWS) through the creation of a Climate Services Division (CSD) at the headquarters level, the creation of a NWS liaison at the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC), and the addition of six Regional Climate Centers as contractual support for NCDC. Action is being undertaken to mitigate deficiencies identified in the current surface weather and climate data collection, quality control, and dissemination process. Central to the effort in improving NOAA’s end-to-end data stewardship process is the strengthened partnerships and related coordination and collaboration between these different organizations. Strengthened partnerships, data policy changes, staff training in climate principles, and more effective operational practices ensure compliance with climate community needs and pay immediate dividends through increased data quality and data availability for all users. The evolution and changes noted above are documented. Future agency priorities for additional improvements that further protect the integrity of the nation’s climate record are also discussed.
Link: https://stateclimate.org/pdfs/journal-articles/2007_3-Leffler.pdf

RESEARCH DATA COLLECTION AT THE REYNOLDS CREEK EXPERIMENTAL WATERSHED

Authors: D. Marks, M. Seyfried, G. Flerchinger and A. Winstral
Volume: Volume 2007, No. 4, 2 Jun 2007
DOI: http://www.doi.org/10.46274/JoASC.2007.06.004
Abstract: To understand how variations in climate, land use, and land cover will impact water, ecosystem, and natural resources in snow-dominated regions, we must have access to long-term hydrologic and climatic databases. Data from watersheds that include significant human activities, such as grazing, farming, irrigation and urbanization, are critical for determining the signature of human induced changes on hydrologic processes and the water cycle. One of the primary components of effective watershed research is a sustained, long-term monitoring and measurement program. Such an effort was undertaken when the Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed (RCEW) was added to the USDA Agricultural Research Service watershed program in 1960. The RCEW, a 239 km 2 drainage in the Owyhee Mountains near Boise, Idaho, has been continuously monitored since the early 1960's and continues to the present. The vision for RCEW as an outdoor hydrologic laboratory in which watershed re search would be supported by sustained, long-term monitoring of basic hydro-climatic parameters was described in 1965 in the first volume of Water Resources Research . Research at the RCEW continues to be supported by monitoring at 9 weirs, 21 primary and 4 secondary meteorological measurement stations, 24 precipitation stations, 8 snow courses, 5 snow study sites, 14 soil temperature profiles, 4 soil moisture profiles and 3 sub-surf ace hill-slope hydrology sites. These support a wide range of experimental investigations including snow hydrology and physics, cold season hydrology, water quality, model development and testing, water and carbon flux experiments, ecosystem processes studies, grazing effects, and mountain climate research. Active watershed manipulation allows research on fire ecology and hydrology, vegetation-climate interaction, watershed restoration, grazing and wildlife management, and invasive plants. All data are ingested into a computer database, and available to the public vi a both web-based and on-line ftp access.
Link: https://stateclimate.org/pdfs//journal-articles/2007_4-Marks.pdf

PAUL WAITE: 1918-2008

Authors: Harry J. Hillaker
Volume: Volume 2008, No. 1, 30 Jun 2008
DOI: http://www.doi.org/10.46275/JoASC.2008.06.001
Abstract: Paul J. Waite, long-time State Climatologist for Iowa, died at the age of 89 in Pittsfield, IL on April 28, 2008. Paul was born on June 21, 1918 in New Salem, IL. He graduated from New Salem High School in 1936 and received a Bachelor of Education in Science and Mathematics from Western State College in Macomb, IL in 1940. He taught and coached in several Illinois schools prior to entering the Air Force Meteorology Cadet Program at the University of Chicago in 1942. He served as a weather officer for the USAF from 1943 to 1946. He then served as a weather- briefer for the then US Weather Bureau in Chicago from 1948 to 1951. In 1951-1952 he served as a USAF meteorologist in Korea, then returned to work for the USWB in Kansas City. He was the USWB State Climatologist in Madison, WI from 1956- 1959, then took the same position in Des Moines, IA from 1959-1973.
Link: https://stateclimate.org/pdfs/journal-articles/2008_1-Hillaker.pdf

NWS FROST DEPTH OBSERVATION WITH LIQUID-IN PROBES PERFORMANCE: TWO-YEAR REVIEW

Authors: F. Adnan Akyuz, Mark Ewens, Radu Carcoana, Barbara Mullins
Volume: Volume 2009, No.1, 1 Jun 2009
DOI: http://www.doi.org/10.46275/JoASC.2009.06.001
Abstract: Performance of the liquid-in frost depth probe made in-house by the Grand Forks National Weather Service (NWS) Weather Forecast Office (W FO) is compared against soil temperature observations made by North Dakota Agricultural Weather Network (NDAWN) at the Fargo location for a two-year period from 2006-2007 to 2007-2008 winter seasons. While the liquid-in frost depth probe provided continuous frost depth observations, NDAWN soil temperature observations had to be interpolated between measurement points to determine the depth where the soil temperature was 0 °C (32 °F). In general, the trends of both observations matched almost identically; however, the magnitude of the depths varied with liquid-in frost depth probe consistently showing deeper frost depths than the NDAWN soil temperature observations.
Link: https://stateclimate.org/pdfs/journal-articles/2008_2-Akyuz.pdf

DAILY CLIMATE DATA QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURES OF THE IOWA STATE CLIMATOLOGIST

Authors: Harry Hillaker, Karen Andsager
Volume: Volume 2009, No. 2, 1 Jun 2009
DOI: http://www.doi.org/10.46275/JoASC.2009.06.002
Abstract: The State Climatologist Office of the Iowa Department of Agriculture and Land Stewardship has been performing data entry and data quality control of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration daily climate data in Iowa since July 1, 1987. This process uses comprehensive, automated quality control tests based on standard instrumentation and observing practices and on standard climatological consistency. Inconsistencies flagged by these tests are manually resolved using a standard procedure based on information available from other sources and surrounding stations. The process then uses a manual spatial test to flag additional suspect values, which are also manually resolved using a standard procedure based on information available from other sources and surrounding stations. For example, for suspect values spotted in snowfall and snow depth spatial plots, visible satellite imagery may be consulted along with snowfall at neighboring stations to produce reasonable snowfall and snow depth estimates. This manually intensive process has produced a unique resource for comparison of manual quality control with automated processes, as well as analysis of Iowa climate.
Link: https://stateclimate.org/pdfs/journal-articles/2008_3-Hillaker.pdf